The Alternate Universe of Second Life free essay sample

When is the last time you used your head and not a calculator to do math? When is the last time you walked to the corner store, instead of driving the two blocks up the street? I mean some people would be lost if they didn’t have their cell phones. Is the world coming to rely on technology for everything, even happiness? Are people using technology as an escape from the real world? Isn’t that why people take vacations? People don’t read books during their leisure time anymore because that would be boring and not to mention time consuming. We live in a fast paced world and if you don’t keep up you’ll be left behind with the AM/FM hand radios. That is why we have our expensive computers, I Pod’s, flat screen televisions, and fast cars to take us anywhere our minds desire. We will write a custom essay sample on The Alternate Universe of Second Life or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Jessica Bennet and Malcolm Beith wrote an interesting essay called â€Å"Alternate Universe†. The essay is about a 3-D virtual world called Second Life. You can do anything you want in this world, even fly. You could be a doctor, a dancer, a designer, what ever makes you happy. You can even find true love on Second Life by dating other avatars, which are what your characters are called. The possibilities are endless with what you can do in this virtual world. You’re sitting on cloud nine and all you need is your computer. All you have to do to be part of what some would call their dream is sign up, create a character to your liking and start living your second life online with millions of other people around the world. This is not just a game to pass time for some people. People are taking this game very seriously, they’d bet their lives on it. The authors give an example saying that one person actually said, â€Å"I’d rather panhandle on the street than leave Second Life. † (Bennet and Beith 15). This person would rather beg on the street than ever leave Second Life. How dependent have we become to the satisfying elements of technology? There are eight millions users on Second Life, all of them living what they wished their real life really was, online. Bennet and Beith tell us that by â€Å"2011 four of every five people who use the internet will actively participate in Second Life, or some similar medium,† so that mean that â€Å"1. billion out of 2 billion internet users will have found new lives online†. These users are spending between eighteen to thirty hours a week playing, or living, Second Life. They tell us that users typically spend their time running their business, partying, and meeting new people. If you can actually make real money in Second Life, who needs a real job anyway? Benn et and Beith give us examples of how two people make their money on Second Life. â€Å"Anshe Chung is a virtual land baroness with a real life fortune. (Bennet and Beith 3). They tell us how Chung has a business called Anshe Chung Studios run by her avatar called Ailin Graef. Her company builds homes and then sells or rents it to other avatar for a pretty penny. She even has sixty people on her staff that works for her. She was Second Life’s first millionaire. The other example is of a real life Pathmark department manager doubling his daily salary by opening up a clothing store where he designs clothes for other avatar to buy with real money. The authors make it seem like you haven’t had a real job till you’ve had a Second Life job, it’s that easy. No set hours, or boss to answer to just â€Å"click and drag†. Imagine waking up in the morning, still in your pajamas, you sit in front of the computer for say two to three hours, check how much money you’ve made off your Second Life, maybe design a new virtual wedding gown, or a build a four story mansion and then put it in the virtual market, go back to sleep and then do it all over again in a few hours. The authors make it seem as though this is the perfect alternate life. You can make friends, and make all the money you need without ever leaving your house, but they fail to mention the things that you will be losing by living this life- social skills and life outside your house. They are promoting this virtual world with a big red banner that says â€Å"Pick me! † They tell you how one woman became a millionaire, and they put the idea in your head, â€Å"well maybe I could do that too, that sounds awesome†, but they very briefly mention how much money she had to invest to make that million. People are so easily swayed, especially with the way the economy is, they will try anything to make money. People hear money and dollar signs light up in their eyes. If that’s what they authors were trying to do they were definitely successful. The authors also tell us that some companies are also using Second Life as part of their work environment. â€Å"Some are holding staff meetings where avatars representing employees can discuss ideas via instant message, email, or Skype, in a souped-up virtual office. † ( Bennet and Beith 17). Some companies are using it connect to customers. Like IBM, Sears, Circuit City, and Nissan all connect to customers through Second Life. Nissan even lets you â€Å"test-drive† a car on a â€Å"virtual track† so you never have to leave your house. What has happened to face-to-face interaction with employees and customers? It’s not that they can’t do it or don’t have the time, it is just easier to use the computer. This way we can be participating in our business meeting and making dinner. Why do the authors make it seem like that is such a good thing? How could it be in any way better test driving a car online than actually doing it in real life? I think that the authors go a little overboard in trying to convince their audience that Second Life is great. I can’t see that many people agreeing with it being better to test drive a car online than in real life. Are we so bored with our lives that we feel we need to buy virtual things (i. e. clothes, cars, houses) for a fictional character that is supposed to represent you. I don’t have the money to buy a real car and people are buying virtual cars for their avatars. Although the money ratio is not the same, it is still money spent on something that you will never be able to touch, or hold. Money that could have been spend filling up your gas tank, or on groceries. One US dollar is worth 270 Linden dollars. The authors tells us that â€Å"on a typical day customers spend $1 million buying virtual clothes, cars, houses, and other goods for their avatars,† and that â€Å"by the end of the year users will have spend about 125 billion Linden dollars in Second Life (about $460 million). † I really don’t think that my money would be well spent if I bought a virtual island for $1,395 as the authors tell us that one person did on eBay. The authors write so freely about money. They talk about money like everyone has so much of it to just waste on this fake life. Who has one million dollars lying around? They do make it a point to say that one US dollar is worth 270 in fake money (Linden dollars). Yes, that is a big inflation from one dollar to 270 but its not real money, so why not one dollar per every 1000 Linden dollars? In the end it is all fake things that you are buying with this fake money that you are using REAL money to purchase, which the authors do not make it a point to mention. If I can’t feel my feet in the sand, swim in the ocean or drink a real martini on it, I am not buying it. It crazy to think this virtual world, filled with virtual things, is making us happier people. I wonder what less fortunate people who don’t have a computer do? I think some are just happy to be alive and well. So a computer costs about say $1000, or more if you want a really nice one. Maybe get a portable one for a little bit more and then you we can carry our second life with us. Our whole life is beginning to revolve around this little box that spits out information. People are starting to rely more and more on it for their connection to the world. I mean why work, date, or socialize with friends when you got your computer in a little carrying case that contains your Second Life. I think that the authors do a good job in advertising all the iced up things that Second Life has to offer but they forget to mention what Second Life could do to a world if everyone relied on it. People wouldn’t need a job, or friends, because Second Life provides that all from the comfort of your home. Bennet and Beith do say that â€Å"Some critics are uneasy with the idea of people getting more and more social activities online,† but they say four sentences about it and then move on to the next topic. They don’t make it a point in their essay to mention the negatives things. They do this because they are pro-virtual life so they trivialize what is happening. All their good things outweigh the bad, so they decide to briefly mention it. They make it seem like who needs social skills or a real job when you have all this money? Imagine a world where no one leaves their homes and Second Life becomes their real life?

Sample Papers

Sample Papers Sample Papers Sample Papers: Help for Students Are you becoming crazy about those numerous assignment papers that you are constantly provided with during your study? Sometimes it may seem to you that they are aimed at turning your life into the terrible nightmare. Do not know how to escape from all that? Try not to avoid the problem but solve it! This article will help you in that. If you do not know how to write your assignment papers, do not rack your brains make use of the Internet. You may find a lot of different web-sites there that offer students assignment writing services. You may say that it is too expensive to buy every assignment paper. But these sites may be useful for you even if you are going to write your assignment paper by yourself. In what way? Free Sample Papers The answer concerns sample papers that these sites propose you to get free of charge. You may find a lot of different papers: sample term papers, sample research papers, sample essay papers and many others. But in what way can they help you if you are not going to buy assignment papers? Of course, you should not submit one of these sample papers as yours because you may have problems. As these papers are available for you everyone else may get them (even one of your group-mates or your tutor). Any kind of sample papers is a papers research sample. What does it mean? Any of sample papers may give you a hint about in what direction you should make your research of the topic given in order to write a good paper. Moreover, reading of such papers may give you a lot of other interesting ideas concerning preparing and writing. Sample Paper ElementsTopic. Sometimes your tutor may let you choose a topic for your paper by yourself. But if you have no ideas about it, you may search them in sample papers. You may find a topic that you may get interested in and that is the half of the success of your paper. Thesis statement. When reading sample papers you may find out how to formulate a thesis sta tement in order to make it clear and understandable. Structure. You may study the structure of papers of a certain kind: what parts they should include, how you should divide them into paragraphs. That will help you make your paper well-structured. Vocabulary. You may study what special words and phrases are used in the academic writing. The usage of such vocabulary will help you put your thoughts logically and clearly. One should stress that this is one of the main criteria of writing a good assignment paper. Thus, it becomes obvious that sample papers may be very helpful for you even if you are going to write your assignment paper by yourself.

How to write a tender - Emphasis

How to write a tender How to write a tender The key to writing a good tender is to be specific and detail how your capabilities match the clients exact requirements. You don’t have to be arrogant to sell your firm. Never kick off the tender by saying how great you are. Instead, show that you’ve listened to the client’s needs and found them the right solution. The way to do this is to identify and concentrate on the ‘win themes’ – the issues the client is most concerned with. Hopefully, you will have had an opportunity to ask them about these. But invitations to tender usually give you clues about what they are and often state them directly (‘tenderers must have †¦Ã¢â‚¬â„¢). Win themes could include things like: completing the job within a tight time schedule attracting quality subcontractors project-management skills guarantees to stay on schedule health and safety procedures. To some extent, most tenders should cover all these issues – among others. But make sure you focus more on the ones your client is particularly interested in. And then show how your firm can meet their needs. One way of doing this with more complex tenders is to draw up a compliance matrix to make sure you’ve got a solution for everything the tender asks for. This could give you the edge if you include it in the tender document itself. Some people in the construction industry argue that tenders are usually won on price alone. No-one can dispute how important price is, and sometimes it may be the main factor (making it a win theme, of course). But never ignore the fact that whoever is in charge of the tendering process is also very interested in your firm – and what you can deliver over and above your competitors. Focus on these and you may well reduce the client’s sensitivity to price. Unique selling points This doesn’t mean you should slate your competitors in your tender – far from it. But it does mean you should have a clear idea of what your firm’s USPs (unique selling points) are. Some examples might include: quality of finish and ability to deal with snagging quickly getting the job done within a tight timeframe and budget (without jeopardising quality) regular progress reports and updates to client client-satisfaction record and percentage of repeat business. Make it clear why they should choose you. Don’t just make vague and clichà ©d claims such as ‘we deliver high-quality work within tight schedules’ or ‘we have considerable experience in the management of new office fit outs and refurbishments’. You need to substantiate these kinds of claims with supporting evidence. For example, ‘We have delivered 90 per cent of our jobs within budget and 60 per cent or our business comes from existing clients’. Include a breakdown of all the various aspects of the work involved in the project. And don’t leave out things because you’re not sure if the client wants them or because you can’t price them accurately at this stage; it will look as though you’ve overlooked them. If necessary, put them in with a ‘TBC’. Don’t make assumptions. Just because the client or person managing the tender knows you, that doesn’t mean you can leave out vital information about your firm. What if there are some other crucial ‘influencers’ reading your tender who know nothing about you? Finally, always go through your tender face to face if the tender process allows it. That way you can sort out any sticking points. Robert Ashton, Chief Executive, Emphasis, business writing specialists. Want to learn how to win business? Have a look at our tender-writing course for individuals or our in-house tender-writing course for teams.

Comprehensive Discussions Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Comprehensive Discussions - Essay Example Every year the US Supreme Court takes up 100 to 150 cases for argument. Four justices must give their consent for hearing the case. The US Supreme Court is primarily an appellate court having jurisdiction over ambassadors as well as two or more states (Understanding Federal and State Courts). The Supreme Court has a chief justice as well as associate justices whose numbers are fixed by the American congress. The present number of associate justices is presently eight. The president of the US has the power to nominate the justices and their appointments are sanctioned according to the advices and consent of the senate. Article III, Â §1, of the Constitution further provides that the Judges of both Supreme and inferior Courts, shall hold their Offices during good Behavior, and Shall, at stated Times, receive for their Services, a Compensation, which shall not be diminished during their Continuance in Office. Article III, Â §1 of the constitution provides that the legal power of the United states shall be vested in only one supreme court as well as in such inferior courts as the congress may from time to time proclaim and institutes. Article. III, Â §2 states that the legal power shall be extended to all cases under the constitution to the US supreme court. It includes cases affecting ambassadors, public ministers, consuls, cases of admiralty and maritime jurisdictions, cases between two or more states, cases involving state and citizens of another state and of the same state, foreign states etc. In cases involving ambassadors and other public ministers, consuls, states, the US Supreme Court has the ultimate jurisdiction. In other cases the Supreme Court has appellate jurisdiction. The appellate jurisdiction has been given to the US Supreme Court by various statutes in the constitution. The basic statute which defines the judicial power is found in 28 U. S. C. Â §1251 et seq. The US c ongress from time to time gives powers to the US supreme court to prescribe

Economics for Business and Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Economics for Business and Management - Essay Example According to Anderton (2000), the consumers are the ones who determine what is to be produced hence determine allocation of resources leading to allocative efficiency. The demand for goods and services by consumers triggers the producers to increase production thus engaging more factors of production in the process. The income earned by the factors determines the amount of consumption by individuals; the more the income, the higher the consumption or demand. At the initial stage, competition by consumers for scarce resources pushes the prices up. The law of supply states that the higher the price, the higher the quantity supplied thus the producers increase production and get more profit. Since there are no barriers to entry in a free market, more producers may enter the market attracted by the abnormal profits (Griffiths & Wall, 2008). In the long run, supply will increase more than demand and the firms will start competing for the few buyers pushing the prices down. A fall in price means the profits also decline leading to reduction in production by firms and exit from the market by others. An optimum allocation of resources occurs where demand by consumers interacts with supply by producers. The resources are used to produce the goods that are most in demand by consumers hence resources are transferred from one use to another which is more profitable. As such, some people are made well off while others are made worse off. For example, if a firm decides to change the technology used in production it will employ individuals who have such skills and those who don’t possess the required skills are declared redundant and lose their wages. The firm can also use new equipments. High prices make some consumers to afford goods while others cant due to amount of income held by individuals. According to the law of demand, the lower the price the higher the quantity demanded. A reduction in production by producers may force prices up as consumers compete for the goods. The high prices in turn lead to cut in consumption. The producers therefore must innovate ways of producing goods at low cost hence low prices for goods and increased demand. This leads to productive efficiency of the economy (Griffiths & Wall, 2008). Competition by firms leads to innovation as firms try to gain competitive advantage. They thus produce high quality goods to the advantage of consumers. Lipsey & Chrystal (2007) argue that the free market gives better information on changing market conditions thus allowing buyers and sellers to make informed decisions. For example, when prices are low it signals that there is high supply in the market and an incentive for buyers to buy more. High prices indicate scarcity of goods and hence an incentive for sellers to sell more and make profit. High prices also induce firms to employ more factors of production. Due to availability of information, decision makers respond quickly to changes in consumer demand (Vidler & Grant, 2003) . The free market system also allows consumers to have a variety of choices from different firms. Q1 (b): How Market Failure Occurs and how Government can Correct Market Failure Market failure is due to inefficient functioning of the markets. A market should be able to resolve the questions of

Analysing Of The Riba Work Stages

Analysing Of The Riba Work Stages On each of the initial work stages of a project the architect is involved in many ways and uses many skills. Before the architect begins any work they must be appointed under the RIBA concise conditions agreement or SW 99. The following is a brief outline of what an architect does in a RIBA standard agreement between architect and client. The first two RIBA work stages come under term Preparation in the RIBA, Outline Plan of Work 2007. The first stage is stage A, Appraisal; this mainly involves establishing the needs of the client. Three main tasks are carried out. Throughout the initial stages of the project constant communication between the architect and client takes place. Firstly, the architect must carry out studies to determine the feasibility of the Clients requirements. The architect may also review the alternative design and construction approaches and the cost implications of each with the client. At this stage the architect may also provide information for reports on the cost implications. During stage B (Design Brief) the initial Statement of Requirements is developed into the Design Brief. Although this is the responsibility of the client the architect often contributes to its development additionally. Stages C, D and E come under the heading Design. This begins with Stage C (Concept), where the architect would usually be required to prepare outline proposals for things, such as, the building structure and building services. The architects also develop concept designs for project. Throughout this stage the architect will be leasing with other members of the team, such as, engineers, quantity surveyors and planning supervisors. This communication helps the architect to provide the client with information on approximate construction costs and cost planning which must then be assessed by the client in the stage report. Stage D (Design Development) involves the completion of the project brief and the further development of the concept designs. At this stage a cost estimate, or information for a cost estimate, must be provided and the architect will be working closely with statutory planning authorities, for instance, local planning departments. The architect must also prepare a detailed planning application, including drawings and an Access and Design Statement. At the end of stage D the architect must obtain signed approval by the client of a stage D report (this is broadly outlined in Task 3). The Shirebrook Academy has just seen the completion of this stage and has now been submitted to planning. b) Involvement by the architectural technologist in the science and technology of the building, rather than the creative and artistic side, is the main difference between the work of the architect and the architectural technologist. Many of the tasks undertaken overlap with the work of the architect and a strong collaboration exists. For example, when working on stages C and D both architect and architectural technologist may work together on developing the project brief and design programme, each contributing specific skills to the project. The architectural technologist may contribute by evaluating and advising upon environmental strategies and material specification, while the architect may work on spatial relationships and movement path diagrams. c) CIAT is a non-profit organization which aims to further the profession and the interests of people working within it. Being a member of CIAT gives many benefits. Firstly, CIAT is the only professional and chartered body that represents architectural technologists and technicians. The different grades of membership/qualification represent a persons competence in an area and this is recognised across the industry. As a student the main benefits of membership may be though the prospect of increased career opportunities. Potential employers recognise the body and that you have a professional attitude and commitment to developing. Membership also brings more direct benefits to a student, such as the vast access to current up to date information on policies and practices. This is available digitally online or though seminars and lectures. For instance, if up to date information on a certain material is needed for the Shirebrook school project, being a member of CIAT would give access to information sheets and technical guidance on the material. Being a member also provides the opportunity to network with other members allowing knowledge to be shared. Other benefits of membership include several free gifts and discounts. Members get free subscriptions to the Building Products magazine and discounts on other magazines and books, such as, the Architects Journal and books at the RIBA bookshop. Membership allows you to apply for scholarships and awards run by the body, in particular the Student Award for Technical Excellence in Architectural Technology, which again helps to show your ability to employers. Finally, as a member free professional indemnity insurance and legal support are available to you if needed. Few reasons for not joining CIAT exist so I would strongly advise you to join. The only perceivable drawback is the membership fee, although as a student this would not apply to you. Task 3 a) There are many reasons why the design team have chosen to procure much of the Shirebrook project off-site. Several drivers for change have made prefabrication the best choice. The political driver for off-site construction can be traced back to two documents published in1994 and 1998: Constructing the Team by Sir Michael Latham and Rethinking Construction by Sir John Egan. These reports were designed to drive the industry forward. The Latham report suggested partnering (between suppliers and clients) and both reports suggest that prefabrication can offer greater on-site quality and efficiency and less time spent on site. Other driving forces towards off-site construction are the shortage of skilled onsite workers and more rigorous building regulations being put in place. Using off-site construction techniques can also has a more direct impact on the project in terms of cost savings and quality improvements. Firstly, costs can be cut due to the several factors. The nature of off-site construction means than building can be erected quickly on site. This means that skilled workers spend less time on site, so do not need to be paid for long time periods. Secondly, off-site construction can lead to less wastage of materials because more components can be ordered and cut to size, thus, reducing cost of materials as well as the embodied carbon in the building. Spending less time on site also means that the risk of accidents occurring is reduced. Quality and performance of the construction can be improved greatly as manufacturing components in factories means that they can be precision machined to high levels of accuracy within a controlled climate. Consequently, less of the construction process is subject to the risks associated with adverse weather which can lead to less defects and a greater quality finished product. With the use of off-site prefabrication the building regulations for such things as thermal and acoustic performance can be met more easily; a good example of this is SIPs panels. In conclusion, both the Latham and Egan reports suggest off-site manufacture and the associated benefits of cost-effectiveness, safety and speed are the main reasons why the Shirebrook School is being procured in this way. Also, the current government BSF (Building Schools for the Future) initiative aims to replace or rebuild all secondary schools in England by 2020; this means that projects need to follow fast routs of procurement. The Shirebrook School will hopefully reach completion on time (aim for doors open to students in Sept 2010). This will be made more achievable through the use of off-site construction and prefabrication methods. b) The main drawbacks of off-site construction involve transport and logistics: with transport being one area where prefabricated buildings are frequently criticised. Large units need to be transported usually by road this means more fuel is used contributing to greater emissions. The use and size of prefabricated components is also limited by the condition of the site transport and access. The maximum width for an unaccompanied load in the UK is 2.9 m (this can be increased to 4.3 m with a police escort). BRE output 209291 Another drawback of off-site construction may be the longer lead in time for design and manufacture which may be required as a consequence of the involvement of additional parties. Effective coordination of component manufacture lines is required. If one component is late then there is a knock on effect on the whole construction time. Also, on conventional sites substituting a product is not usually a problems, whereas, substituting or changing materials and products during the design of a building procured off-site may create problems in the factory. Some aesthetic limitations do exist especially in modular off-site construction techniques, however, in my opinion the benefits of off-site construction far outweigh the drawbacks. Task 4 a) The main reason for work stage reports are because they provide an effective means of managing the project and maintaining control of the project. At the end of each of the RIBA work stage a reports is submitted to the client. Work stage reports combine information from different groups into one document. This allows the client to monitor the performance and progress of the entire project on a regular basis. After each stage the client can then give approval so that the project can continue to the next stage: usually by signing off the work stage report, particularly at stages D and E. The initial work stage reports help by stating clear objectives of the project. Work stage reports can be used to identify changes to the project or project brief and allow subsequent changes and action to be taken. They allow clients to see things such as the resources and finance required to complete the project. For example at the end of each stage reports on costs can be analysed by the client to check the project remains viable and affordable. The report ensures that the design meets the needs of the client. The work stage system allows progression of the project. After each stage a new set of objectives or instructions can be laid out by the client for the following stage if required. Work stage reports may also be useful as they can be used to fulfil legal and authoritative obligations. For example, they can be used in the event of legal problems to show that proper procedures have been followed at each stage. Reports also ensure that safety procedures are followed and recorded and ensure that projects meet the required safety standards and requirements. In addition, work stage reports provide a comprehensive documentation of the construction process from start to finish. A work stage report at the end of stage D can be used to help obtain planning permission by submission to the relevant planning board. At the conclusion of Stage D, the satisfied client must sign off the Design and the Project Brief. After stage D any changes made by the client will mean additional expenses. b) Contents of Stage D report: The following Stage D report outline contents page shows outputs associated with the Architects office. The report would usually also contain information from structural, electrical, environmental and mechanical engineers (depending on the design). 1. Finalised Project Brief developed from the Strategic Brief 2. Detailed Proposals Design intentions Site layout Planning and spatial arrangements Build and construction information Environmental systems information 2.6 Environmental impact assessment Schedule of Accommodation, showing areas, gross areas and percentages Outline Specifications Risk Assessment 6. Full Planning application, application for listed building consent or application for conservation area consent, including: 6.1. Prototypes mock-ups and model images, in context with site 6.2. Development proposals (drawings at 1:200 for Comprehensive Design Project) 6.3 Design and Access Statement 6.4 Developments and changes to existing buildings 7. A full set of project drawings. (The scope of which is shown below). 8. Cost information Projected cost estimate An elemental cost plan Firm cost plan c) Accompanying drawing for stage D (all scales will depend on the nature and size of the project) Flow diagrams showing layouts and relationships. (Varying scales depending on nature of drawing up to around 1:50) Site plan, showing hard and soft landscaping (1:500 for Shirebrook School Development) All building floor plans in context with the surrounding landscape and buildings. (Scale 1:200 for Shirebrook School Development). All key elevations in context with the surrounding landscape and buildings. (Scale 1:200 for Shirebrook School Development). Key Sections, annotated and showing materials and integration of services and systems (1:200 and 1:100 for Shirebrook School Development but up to 1:50 depending on nature of the drawing)

Judicial Precedent Essay

Judicial Precedent is another important source of law, it is an independent source of law, where there are no legislations on the particular point in statute Books, and Judicial Precedent works great. Judicial precedent has been accepted as one of the important sources of law in most of the legal systems. It is also a continuous, growing source of law. According to Salmond, the doctrine of precedent has two meanings, namely (1) in a loose sense precedent includes merely reported case-law which may be cited and follows by the court, (2) in its strict sense, precedent means that case-law which not only has a great binding authority. But must also be followed. There are variety of different views about the nature of judicial precedent. According to Jermy Bentham, Precedent is a judge-made Law while Austine calls it as judiciary’s law; Keeton holds precedents as those judicial pronouncements of the court which carry with them certain authority having a binding force. In simple wor ds precedent means judge-made decisions which are used in further cases. A judicial precedent is purely constitutive in nature and never abrogative. Means it can create law but cannot abolish it. The judges are not at liberty to substitute their own views where there is a settled principle of law. They can only fill in the gaps in the legal system and so we can say that precedent means a case decided previously. Or precedent is any set pattern upon which future conduct may be based. Judicial precedent is a decision by a competent court of justice upon a disputed point of view which becomes, not merely a guide but an authority to be followed by all courts of co-ordinate or inferior jurisdiction and administrating the same system until it has been overruled by a court of superior jurisdiction or by a statute of superior authority, e.g., an Act of Parliament. The justification of the binding rule of judicial precedent is based on the several reasons these are that, precedent is based on practical experience. Rather than logic, it is based on convenience in the sense that it is provided in settled law and thus saved the labour of judges. It prevents error of judgment by individual judges, it prevents partiality on the part of the judges It helps lawyers to take a cautious view of the development of law on the basis of past judicial experience because of above all factors precedents are become achieve important place as one of the important source of law. Precedents can be classified into two categories: (1) Authoritative and (2) Persuasive. The authoritative precedent is one  which has a binding force and the judge must follow it whether he approves it or not. Authoritative precedents are the decisions of superior court of justice which are binding on subordinate courts. For ex. Supreme Court, High Courts, Persuasive precedents, on the other hand, is on which the judges are under no obligation to follow but which they may take into consideration at the time of making decision. Now from all above discussion we are well able to understand precedent, how we discussed the position of precedent in real practice and its recent value in administration of justice. In the recent years, the value of the doctrine of precedent has become a debatable issue. In England the importance of precedent is much more than in any continental country, that is why it is often said that judicial precedent is an unique feature of common law countries because the great body of the common law or unwritten law is almost entirely the product of decided cases and common law of England has been created by the decision of English judges and precedent is not merely evidence of the law but a source of it and the courts are bound to follow the law that is so established. House of Lords is the highest Court in England, its decisions bind all the inferior courts, the House of Lords itself is bound by its own previous decision but this position after a long controversy and various debates become change after the famous classic case. Boys v. Chaplin, 1968 IAIIER 283 and it is finally decided that as the House of Lords is the highest court in England, its decisions are absolutely binding on all inferior courts. But House of Lords is now not bound by its own earlier decisions and so nowadays House of Lords is not bound by its own previous decisions. In continental countries like Germany France, Italy, judicial precedent has only instructive value and it is not authoritative. In these countries its importance is no greater than that of a textbook of law. In India judicial precedent has great value. The position of precedent becomes clear after 1950 and the doctrine of precedent gets a constitutional recognition. Art. 141 of the constitution provide that law declared by the Supreme Court to be binding on all courts, within the territory of India. It is clear from the wordings of Article 141 that the law declared by the Supreme Court is binding on all courts in India. But there after in various debates question arises that, whether the expression all courts include Supreme Court also. This question gives birth to various new views, that whether Supreme Court follows the British model of the House  of Lords of ‘be bound’ or the U.S.A. Supreme Court ‘not be bound’. This question was first discussed by S.C. in the famous case. Now it is finally concluded from all forgoing discussion that the position of precedent from past to presen t is changed in vast dimensions and importance. Value of precedent is now decreased to some extent and new concepts of prospective overruling has evolved to avoid the complications in vast changing society. In true sense precedents enable the judges to re-shape law according to the social need and at the same time the binding authority of the precedent acts as an effective check on the arbitrary discretion of the judges. Precedent helps common people to know about the intricate principles of law. Precedent helps Lawyers in their argument without waste of unnecessary time and energy whenever they want to cite any case-law. It also provides useful guidelines for the judges in deciding cases before them. But there are some contrary arguments towards precedent as Bentham did not recognize precedent as law at all because it lacks binding force of the state. Some critics argue that, statute law is more important than precedent, they say that, judicial precedents are published in law reports which are in such a large number that it becom es practically difficult to find out a particular case from such a voluminous legal literature and so it is very time consuming, they also contend that, at one time, different courts express conflicting opinions on the same point which renders the validity of precedent doubtful and uncertain and there is always a possibility of erroneous judgment in such a case. Another objection which is quite often raised against precedent is that development of law through case-law more or less depends upon chance, because there is no test available for determining the validity of law made by precedent. Sometimes erroneous decisions of S.C. create practical problems for the subordinate judges as they are bound to follow these decisions howsoever wrong or defective. This adversely affects the growth and development of law in the right direction. But despite the aforesaid critical argument, judicial precedent has been as one of the important sources of law in most of the legal systems particularly U.K., U.S.A., Australia, Afro-Asian countries and India as the merits of the binding effect of the precedent (decision) it must be stated that it gives certainty and uniformity to law and brings about its scientific development and precedents always remain an effective weapon of shaping and developing  law according to the needs of the changing society.